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Leading up to the Middle Ages, a great deal of quality breeding horses had been lost due to a lack of need for well-bred riding horses and uncontrolled breeding. This was a significant factor in the way horses were bred during this time: based much more on size and ability than whether they shared bloodlines or defining features with the stock they were bred from. The Spanish were an exception: having already developed a reputation as a horse breeding land, they maintained several significant bloodlines and “Spanish horses” were renowned throughout Europe as the highest quality, and most expensive, horses.

Since the medieval war horse didn’t belong to any particular breed, nor do we have records of any of these horses’ bloodlines, it is unclear exactly what breeds it originated from. Popular theory usually suggests that the Spanish Jennet, a type of draft horse that was an ancestor to modern Andalusian and Friesian horses, was also the principle ancestor of the medieval warhorse. Another breed, known as the Nisaean breed (now extinct, but may be akin to the modern Turkmen horse or Akhal-Teke), is thought to have contributed to medieval breeding stock as many of these horses were brought back to Europe from the Crusades. Some sources from Germany also allude to quality horses from Scandinavia, though what breeds they are referring to is unknown.

Depiction of destriers with light feathering on the legs, similar to modern draft breeds such as the Belgian and Percheron

Selective horse breeding became more common once the people realized how important good warhorses were to success in battle. The implementation of these practices was due in large part to the influence of Islamic culture both through the Crusades and the Moors’ invasion of Spain. Many of these cultures, especially the Arabs, kept detailed pedigrees of their horses through oral tradition. We have a very thorough knowledge of modern Barb and Arabian breeds as a result, and many breeders can trace their horses’ ancestry back almost a thousand years.

While most Europeans didn’t start keeping record of their horses’ pedigrees until the 13^th century, the Spanish kept some of the earliest records of horse breeding on the continent. These were written mostly by Carthusian monks who, since they had the ability to read and write, were tasked with keeping records of breeding horses by the Spanish nobility. Hundreds of years of careful breeding resulted in what was known in Medieval times simply as the Spanish horse. Conversely, the English and French obtained much of their breeding stock by rounding up wild moor ponies.

This is a Fell Pony, a small, stocky breed with feathered legs. The medieval destrier may have looked something like this.

The medieval warhorse is considered an extinct breed today. As the use of horses changed over time, so did the way people bred them and selected for traits. Horses have become gradually larger over time, small, stocky ponies were replaced by taller and lighter horses for riding, and huge, heavy draft breeds for farm work. The specific type of horse known as the destrier disappears from record around the 17^th century, making it difficult to trace exactly what breeds evolved from it. Many modern draft breeds claim connection to the famed medieval warhorse, including the Percheron, Suffolk Punch, and Belgian. Some historians think this is likely, while others contend that the destrier would have been much smaller and somewhat lighter than the draft breeds, as well as being known for its “hot-blooded” nature. A suggested solution is that the destriers were crossed with more “cold-blooded” draft breeds as the use of horses shifted to farming, and the modern draft breeds evolved from there. The Friesian is often claimed to be a direct descendant of medieval French warhorses, though, again, the modern version of this breed must have evolved to some degree. Proponents of this theory often point to the previously mentioned practice in England and France of rounding up wild ponies to use for breeding. The Fell pony, a small, hardy breed found in the mountains between England and Scotland, is known to share ancestry with the Friesian. Many therefore argue that the breed has at least some relation to the medieval warhorse.

Works Cited:

“Horses in the Middle Ages.” Wikipedia. November 21, 2018. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages.

Bennett, Matthew. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development, and Redevelopment. Wiley Blackwell.

Hyland, Ann. The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades. Royal Asiatic Society, 1994.

Bennett, Matthew. “The medieval warhorse reconsidered.” In Medieval Knighthood, 5. Papers from the Sixth Strawberry Hill Conference 1994, pp. 19-40. 1994.

Middle Eastern, or “Oriental” horses, were bred with much more precision than European horses. Breeds such as the Arabian, Akhal-Teke, and Barb developed in this region and are all considered to be among the oldest horse breeds on the planet due to their long history of selective breeding practices and careful pedigree records. People in the Middle East also bred for different characteristics than Europeans. Part of this was due to climate—Europeans tended to favor the shaggy highland ponies that could withstand cold temperatures as well as breeds with feather around their feet that protected their legs while traveling difficult terrain. Middle Eastern horses on the other hand were thin skinned and much lighter and slimmer in build.

An Arabian horse in the desert. Antoine-Jean Gros, c. 1810

Both regions used their horses for war as well as for ceremony and sport. As previously noted, European cavalry orchestrated its offense by charging enemy lines, using the strength and numbers of their horses to overpower their opponents. Middle Eastern people on the other hand often raided enemy settlements and needed a fast, agile horse to do so. Often very lightly armored, these horses were also characterized by extreme endurance and hardiness, with some legends saying they could run for fifty miles without slowing. While these claims may have been exaggerated somewhat, modern Arabian horses are the undisputed champions of endurance races and are one of the hardiest breeds in existence today. The breed is also characterized by having greater bone density than other horses along with lean muscle, giving them a strength not often attributed to their relatively small size (14.1—15.1 hands is the modern breed standard height).

Both Middle Eastern and European warhorses were considered to be “hot-blooded” breeds. This trait, broadly defined as being spirited, quick to learn, and generally more suited to speed and agility than strength, was an important characteristic for a warhorse to have. The horses from both cultures displayed this trait very differently however: many sources point to European warhorses as being fierce and difficult to handle, while the Arabian horse in particular traveled with nomadic groups and was prized for its cooperative and good-natured disposition. Middle Eastern people also rode mares into battle almost exclusively, which could have been a contributing factor in their horses’ friendliness and how easy they were to control. Mares could also be kept close together without fighting, while the stallions favored by Europeans sometimes turned on one another during battle. Additionally, mares tended to be much quieter (stallions often neigh to establish dominance), and the nighttime raids the warhorses were most often used for required stealth.

“Mameluck en Attaque” 18th-century painting by Carle Vernet depicting an Arabian warhorse

Additionally, Middle Eastern cultures such as the Bedouin people prized their horses much more highly than Europeans, who saw them more as a commodity that could be easily replaced. To protect their horses from theft, the Bedouin often allowed them to stay inside the family tent at night. As only the horses with a good temperament were used for breeding, the Arabian horse has evolved over time to have a good relationship with people. The draft breeds that (may or may not have) descended from the European warhorse can be quite friendly, but no other breed of horse has had quite the same long-term partnership with humans as the Arabian. This partnership was important because humans were the only source of food and water in the desert, and both the nomadic people and the horses had to learn to work together to survive.

Works Cited:

Głażewska, Iwona. “Speculations on the origin of the Arabian horse breed.” Livestock Science 129, no. 1-3 (2010): 49-55.

An Arabian horse in the desert. Antoine-Jean Gros, c. 1810

Raber, Karen, and Treva Tucker, eds. The culture of the horse: Status, discipline, and identity in the early modern world. Springer, 2016.

Bennett, Matthew. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development, and Redevelopment. Wiley Blackwell.

Hyland, Ann. The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades. Royal Asiatic Society, 1994.

Horse armor, known as “barding,” was as important to the success of an army as the armor that knights wore. As armor technology became better and better, opposing armies began to target the knights’ more vulnerable horses, unseating the riders and making them easy prey for heavy infantry. The idea of putting armor on horses was not a new one, but prior to the middle ages it was made primarily of hardened leather (or metal scales in the case of the Byzantines) rather than chain mail and metal plating.

There were many different pieces of armor that horses could wear, but the amount of armoring they needed varied depending on the way a particular army used their cavalry. Some only wore chest and head pieces, while others were almost completely covered by armor.

Open chanfron with rondel

A chanfron (or “shaffron”) was made of interlocking metal plates and was designed to protect a horse’s face. The size of these pieces varied, with some chanfrons covering only the forehead and top of the nose and others with hinged cheek plates that went down to the jowls and covers for the ears and eyes. Chanfrons often had a rounded spike in the center of the forehead called a rondel which, despite looking like a weapon, was purely decorative. The chanfron was known to be used by cavalry in ancient Greece, but wasn’t seen in Europe until the 12^th century when metal armor began to be used for horses rather than hardened leather.

An open chanfron was open around the horse’s eyes, with some believing that this was done to allow full range of vision. More common were chanfrons with flanges protecting the eyes. While this helped keep a vulnerable part of the horse safe (enemies would often aim for the eyes of horses to try and get them to throw their riders or crash into other horses), it acted like a set of blinders and prevented the horse from seeing very far to the sides or behind. This in turn could cause the horse to panic in battle if they were surrounded by loud noises that they couldn’t see.

The criniere (also called a manefaire) was a series of segmented metal plates called lames used to protect a horse’s neck. Each piece was held together by cloth laces or leather straps, allowing the horse to bend its head while still maintaining the protection of the armor. Heavy cavalry often wore two sets of lames, one over the mane and another around the front and sides of the neck. Light cavalry only covered the mane, with thin leather straps running across the horse’s chest to hold it on. The criniere was often buckled or strapped to the chanfron to keep it in place. Additionally, it was common for chain mail to be attached to the top row of lames and wrapped around the neck for extra protection.

Full set of armor with plate croupiere, criniere, and peytral (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria.)

A croupiere was used to protect a horse’s hindquarters. Since this area faced away from a charge and was not likely to be targeted to bring a horse down, horses typically wore less or lighter armor on their hind end. Croupieres could be made of any combination of plate armor, chain mail, or leather. Chain mail was the most common, usually attached to the back of the saddle and draped over the horse’s hindquarters like a blanket. Plate armor, while providing better protection, wasn’t flexible like leather or chain mail and often had to be made too large so that the movement of the horse’s hind legs was not impeded. Additionally, there was no one-size-fits-all design for these types of croupieres, since horses vary in size and build. When they were used, plate croupieres were attached to the back of the saddle either by leather straps or a molded metal front piece to the armor that fit over the rear cantle.

Peytral with decorative openings, early 16th century, Germany

The flanchard was used to protect the horse’s flanks. It could be made of riveted metal plates sewn on top of leather, or a type of hardened leather called cuir bouilli, which was boiled and sealed with beeswax. Flanchards were attached to the saddle and usually had a strap that wrapped around either the front or the rear of the horse to keep the armor from pulling the saddle to the sides. This strap often took the form of a peytral, a curved band of metal that protected the horse’s chest and sometimes stretched as far back as the saddle. The flanchard sometimes had small round or oblong openings that allowed the rider to use spurs. Another piece often added to horses’ armor ensemble was metal plates or chainmail links riveted to the reins so they couldn’t be cut.

Two knights jousting, with horses in full caparison

Perhaps one of the most recognizable parts of medieval horses’ armor is the caparison. These were cloth coverings, often bearing heraldry designs, that could range in size from what was essentially a large saddle covering to blankets that covered the horse from neck to tail and nearly to the ground. It is not known exactly how well they functioned as armor, but modern reenactments have shown that a loose covering made of relatively thick material is reasonably good for blocking arrows and other projectiles, or at least lessening their impact. Caparisons may have also had an undercloth layer called a gambeson. These were quilted from linen or wool, and partially stuffed with horse hair or straw to provide padding. The caparison could also have had an underlayer of chain mail or flexible riveted plates, though this likely would have been used only by heavy cavalry as the traditional armor beneath combined with the full-body protection of the caparison would have been more than enough to protect the horse by itself, not to mention the excess weight of a full coat of chain mail would add unnecessary weight.

Heraldry and the display of a rider’s coat of arms was very important both in battle and in tournaments such as jousting. The caparison worn by a knight’s horse in particular usually displayed colors and symbols unique to its rider. The main tincture of a knight’s coat of arms was usually the base color of the caparison, with charges (symbols located on the shield of a coat of arms, often animals, mythical creatures, or geometric designs) painted or embroidered along the sides. The color of these designs could have multiple meanings: sometimes it represented the tincture (secondary or “top” color on a coat of arms) and other times it represented the knight’s livery colors (indication of a noble’s status or wealth).

Works Cited:

Breiding, Dirk H. “Horse Armor in Europe.” The Met. March 2010. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hors/hd_hors.htm.

Breiding, Dirk H. “Horse armor in medieval and Renaissance Europe: An overview.” The Armored Horse in Europe (2005): 1480-1620.

Clark, John, ed. The medieval horse and its equipment, c. 1150-c. 1450. Vol. 5. Boydell Press, 2004.

Bennett, Matthew. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development, and Redevelopment. Wiley Blackwell.

Shaffron (Horse’s Head Defense). Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art. In The Met. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/14.25.1664/.

“Barding.” Wikipedia. August 12, 2018. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barding.

Warhorses needed to be at least somewhat trained before they could be ridden in battle. They had to learn to respond to cues from their rider’s legs rather than the reins, as the knights needed their hands free to wield weapons. Horses were known to kick and bite at enemies in the heat of battle, though it is not known whether they were trained to do so or if it was simply a natural response to the chaotic situation. Europeans were known to prefer stallions as warhorses, as their natural aggressive tendencies made them useful in battle and less likely to be frightened, but it is not known whether a significant number of stallions were actually used. If a mare nearby was in heat, a stallion quickly became a liability for anyone trying to control it. In addition, stallions often become very aggressive with one another, which presented a significant danger to them and their handlers. It would have been impractical to expect a bunch of stallions to line up close together in any sort of cavalry formation. However, some sources report that warhorses frequently fought each other in the middle of battle, often after their riders had been unseated or killed and no one was around to restrain them. They were most useful when it came to charging enemy lines and taking down soldiers on foot, so perhaps their tactical advantage would have outweighed the difficulty of handling them.

Jousting was another important way that warhorses learned the skills they needed for battle. Jousting tournaments were held frequently throughout the Middle Ages, and allowed a horse to get used to potentially frightening sights and sounds of lances striking armor and riders falling off around them. It also taught them to charge straight and respond to their rider’s cues, two skills that were essential to any good warhorse. It allowed them to build up their strength and endurance as well as get used to carrying the weight of a knight and his armor. The tournaments also gave knights an opportunity to test out prospective war horses and see which ones would be best suited for riding in battle.

Depiction of a joust

While warhorses would have to build up their strength to some extent to perform at the necessary level, most of this was manifested as endurance and speed rather than actual physical strength needed to carry an armored rider. A common misconception surrounding knights’ armor is that it was very heavy—this often leads to the additional assumption that warhorses had to have been huge and draft-like to carry so much weight. Tournament armor was significantly heavier than field, or battle, armor, and still only weighed around 90 pounds. Field armor could weigh anywhere from 40 to 70 pounds, depending on whether the knight was part of a heavy or light cavalry, and the armor worn by the horse rarely weighed more than 70 pounds. All together this added up to around 1,100 to 1,400 pounds for (fully armored) horses being ridden in battle. As horses can easily carry around 30% of their body weight, such a load would have been reasonable for a heavier built riding horse, and a large draft breed would not have been necessary. Also worth noting is the need for horses within the 14-16 hand range so that knights could mount without assistance. While this was likely due in some part to the pride of being able to leap onto a horse’s back while fully armored, it really came down to necessity. If a knight fell off his horse during a battle he was left very vulnerable if he couldn’t get back on without help.

Works Cited:

Bennett, Matthew. “The medieval warhorse reconsidered.” In Medieval Knighthood, 5. Papers from the Sixth Strawberry Hill Conference 1994, pp. 19-40. 1994.

Raber, Karen, and Treva Tucker, eds. The culture of the horse: Status, discipline, and identity in the early modern world. Springer, 2016.

“Horses in the Middle Ages.” Wikipedia. November 21, 2018. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages.

Bennett, Matthew. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development, and Redevelopment. Wiley Blackwell.

Codex Manesse, UB Heidelberg, Cod. Pal. germ. 848, fol. 52r: Walther von Klingen

Horses used in battle had to be large and strong enough to carry the weight of a fully armored knight on their back. They also had to be relatively fast and agile enough to turn rapidly and accelerate quickly. Battles were also loud, chaotic, and difficult to follow, and these horses had to be desensitized enough to respond to their rider’s cues even in circumstances that would normally frighten them.

Before medieval times, cavalry was defined almost exclusively by small, light horses and riders with little armor. The medieval era saw the beginning of heavy cavalry use. However, such occurrences were rare as almost all offensive medieval battles took place in the form of sieges. Any cavalry used in these situations were light and fast. In fact, cavalry typically rode through for an initial charge, then left their horses at the rear of the army and continued fighting on foot. By the late Middle Ages however, large pitched cavalry battles became more and more common and heavy cavalry was introduced as an attempt to counter the increasing success of infantry attacks. This era saw the introduction of knights and horses in plate armor, armed with lances and spears rather than axes and swords.

Horses in battle, with riders carrying lances

The development of new riding technology was crucial to the success of knights and warhorses in battle. The invention of the solid-treed saddle by the Romans allowed a rider’s weight to be distributed evenly over a horse’s back, with the heaviest point resting on the shoulders rather than the spine. Not only did this prolong the useful life of work and riding horses, it made carrying a fully armored knight much more feasible. The seat was also more built up, providing the rider with greater security and further reducing the amount of weight placed directly on the more delicate part of the horse’s back. The cantle of the late medieval saddle was also built up enough to allow a rider to wield a lance more effectively.

8th century solid-treed saddle

In addition, the solid-treed saddle allowed for the attachment of stirrups. Stirrups were invented in China around 480 AD. By the late 8^th century, largely due to Central Asian invaders, they began to be adopted by European riders. Stirrups were beneficial to riders because they allowed them to distribute their weight through their feet rather than gripping with their legs to stay on the horse. Along with the raised cantle for support, a knight could now stand up in the stirrups and lean much further to the left or right in battle. Knights began using a wider variety of weapons as a result, including javelins and sometimes swords rather than the typical couched lance that could be used from a stationary position.

Works Cited:

Bennett, Matthew. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development, and Redevelopment. Wiley Blackwell.

Hyland, Ann. The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades. Royal Asiatic Society, 1994.

Clark, John, ed. The medieval horse and its equipment, c. 1150-c. 1450. Vol. 5. Boydell Press, 2004.

Paolo Uccello – The Yorck Project (2002) 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei (DVD-ROM), distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing

Now that weapons, knives, and duels have been discussed in the previous blogs, it’s time to talk about swordplay and knife-play. This topic is widely sought out by scholars, researchers and historians since studies on culture and military training in an individualistic setting are usually missing or hard to find (Jaquet 7). Swords and knives are practically found with every warrior since the beginning of the Medieval Century. But without technique, one cannot rise the ranks in their army. Majority of the warriors were taught by teachers or family members since school for military combat was too expensive and only nobles or royal knights could attend (Jaquet 552). Most of these lessons started with hand-to-hand combat to knives moving to wooden swords and financially practicing a certain technique with real/practice swords (Jaquet 547, 411).

Durer, Albrecht. Saint Bartholomew (S. Barthélemy) (Saint Bartholomew Standing with Sword and Book). 1523. Artstor, library-artstor-org.hal.weber.edu/asset/ACONNWETMOREIG_10313464742

One reason why the school was so expensive could be correlated to the painting above. Saint Bartholomew, one of twelve apostles of Jesus is shown wielding a bible with his right hand and a knife on his left hand. It is believed that if you take up a sword under the name of God, you must be righteous and dignified. One way to be so during the Medieval era was to donate to the church. So if you were to take up sword lessons, the majority of the revenue would be donated to the church.

There are many styles of swordplay and knife-play when the 15th century came around, but there was one technique that was most prominent, fencing. Johannes Liechtenauer, a German fencer, played a critical role in fencing-training with students (Wikipedia 1.2). The evidence of this lies in hundreds of Fechtbücher (fencing-books) being published with credits to Liechtenauer for originating the style or having an influence on a technique being created.

Folio 80r. Wiktenauer contributors. “Albrecht Dürer.” Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts. Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts, 26 Oct. 2018, wiktenauer.com/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer.

Folio 81r. Wiktenauer contributors. “Albrecht Dürer.” Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts. Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts, 26 Oct. 2018, wiktenauer.com/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer.

In the images above from Albrecht Dürer, it demonstrates the positions and movements of fencing (Wiktenauer 2.2). It’s believed these illustrations come from Johannes Liechtenauer’s fencing style since these were made in the early 15th century in Germany. It was about the late 14th century to early 15th century that Liechtenauer’s fencing-style was being published (Wiktenauer 1).

Some advantages of using the fencing-technique are due to its versatility. The method is popular with various types of weapons and is very suitable for broadswords and even daggers. With fencing, it can deliver strong, destructive blows or be used for parries. The structure technique is perfect for both light and heavy swords. The severity of the blow doesn’t determine how successful the attack is. But it’s the ability to disarm an opponent, the ability to deliver a second blow, footwork, and speed determines the success of a sword strike (Molloy 122). If a knight wants to change their sword to match a certain technique, they would “mill-sharpen” their swords. This means they would sharpen their swords, shorten their length, and or temper their weapons in a mill during the middle of battle (Walton 989). Once the sharpened sword is complete, most knights would be using the fencing style since it’s style is widely used by many swords or dagger types (Wikipedia 1.2).

Folio 38v. Wiktenauer contributors. “Albrecht Dürer.” Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts. Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts, 26 Oct. 2018, wiktenauer.com/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer.

In the images above from Albrecht Dürer, it demonstrates the positions and movements of using a knife (Wiktenauer 2.3). The major features of using a knife are to grab the opponent’s wrists and hands (shown with the blue figure in the top and the red figure in the bottom). By controlling the opponent’s wrists, it limits how they can move and allow you to stab or immobilize them.

I believe the Wikipedia article I chose is a good article for my topic because the information correlates with the Albrecht Dürer illustrations on sword-play. The time period of the article matches with my primary and secondary sources (late 14th century to early 15th century). The article has information that spans after the time-period of this blog and how the variating sword techniques and combat styles originated from the source (Wikipedia 1-3). While I was researching the famous names in the article, particularly Albrecht Dürer and Johannes Liechtenauer, their names appeared on scholarly sources such as books and art pieces. With Dürer’s painting of Saint Bartholomew being one of the sources used in this project. The final reason this article is good for my topic is that they list the weapons types for some of the fighting styles, particularly fencing (Wikipedia 1.2).

Primary Source:

Jaquet, Daniel, et al. Late Medieval and Early Modern Fight Books: Transmission and Tradition of Martial Arts in Europe (14th-17th Centuries). Brill, 2016.

Wiktenauer contributors. “Albrecht Dürer.” Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts. Wiktenauer, the World’s Largest Library of HEMA Books and Manuscripts, 26 Oct. 2018, wiktenauer.com/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer.

Secondary Source:

Durer, Albrecht. Saint Bartholomew (S. Barthélemy) (Saint Bartholomew Standing with Sword and Book). 1523. Artstor, library-artstor-org.hal.weber.edu/asset/ACONNWETMOREIG_10313464742

Molloy, Barry. “Martial Arts and Materiality: A Combat Archaeology Perspective on Aegean Swords of the Fifteenth and Fourteenth Centuries BC.” World Archaeology, vol. 40, no. 1, 2008, pp. 116–134. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40025316.

Walton, Steven. “Words of Technological Virtue: ‘The Battle of Brunanburh’ and Anglo-Saxon Sword Manufacture.” Technology and Culture, vol. 36, no. 4, 1995, pp. 987–999. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3106921.

Wikipedia contributors. “Historical European martial arts.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 20 Dec. 2018. Web. 23 Dec. 2018.

Now that we have talked about swords and knives, we can now talk about how duels are started. The phrase “throw down the gauntlet” means to literally throw your heavy gauntlet to your opponent to challenge them into a duel (Harrison). The challenged party would then have to take up the gauntlet and duel. With how honorable knights were back in that era, the could determine a battle if a knight was leading the battle (Harrison). The level of duels were sometimes miscommunicated. Sometimes the duelers were dueling to sever a limb, taking one’s life, or simply making a hit on their armor with now death. With duels being misinterpreted as that, many lives were lost and sometimes the battles wouldn’t end due to one believing a duel wasn’t fair. It was believed the first duels originated during the 5th century in the early Amorite kingdoms located at the Mesopotamia and Babylonia (present-day Western Asia) (MacDonald 147).

In the Na’ar (Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon), it mentions people going about duels and how some will allow a person to earn a title. An armored man was summoned to duel a person with hardly any armor as punishment. As the one without any armor was able to evade his blows, the armored man was able to block his blows. The title for the armored man was armor-bearer (MacDonald 158). Most titles can be bestowed for having a father who was a notable knight (Macdonald 159). For example, one could say they are Scot, son of William. Where in this example, William would have been William the Great.

http://www.thearma.org/images/NA03/sigleg.jp(g)

In the picture, it shows how some duels are fought. Each person would have their respective weapons and armor. As shown, it could be interpreted that this duel was miscommunicated by the knights. The one on the right is trying to sever the other’s leg while the one of the left is going for the head and taking the kill. Or it can also be interpreted as the knight on the left is preparing a swing to take the leg while the knight of the right is having a swifter blow.

Another huge factor in duels is that most blades are dull instead of sharp to prevent shattering or chipping of blades and ending a duel (Medieval Combat). Another technique used in duels are disarming techniques (Medieval Combat). If an opponent doesn’t have their weapon, they can either continue the duel and die or they can own their losses.

Works Cited

Primary Source:

Harrison, Elizabeth. “What Does It Mean to ‘Throw Down the Gauntlet’?” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 26 Mar. 2014, www.history.com/news/what-does-it-mean-to-throw-down-the-gauntlet.

Secondary Source:

MacDonald, John. “The Status and Role of the Naʿar in Israelite Society.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 35, no. 3, 1976, pp. 147–170. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/544342.

“Medieval Combat.” All-Gauge Model Railroading Page, Milihistriot Quarterly, http://www.thortrains.com/getright/Medieval Combat.htm.

http://www.thearma.org/images/NA03/sigleg.jp(g)

Knives (or daggers) played a huge role during the medieval era since it is the last resort weapon for every knight and warrior (Dandridge 145). The first knife was created during the prehistoric era and has constantly evolved since then. The first metal knife was made during the Bronze Age (3000 BC – 1200 BC) in present-day Norway (Dandridge 148). Knives were also assumed to be used to cut off fingers, ears, heads, or toes of tough opponents to keep as spoils of wars or turn in bounties. The knives were made with stronger hilts compared to other swords and a secure pommel (Dandridge 148). The daggers were also strong enough to stab through chainmail (Medieval).

Queste del Saint Graal  (Post-Vulgate cycle), Mort Artu , fol.28v .. ca. 1380-1400.. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/AWSS35953_35953_31694265

In the picture, King Arthur’s Round Knight Perceval is shown sleeping on the shoulder of a lion. It shows his knife on his side on the bottom right corner. This painting was created during the late 14th century and symbolizes after a grueling battle, you can always rely on your knife. In the painting, there is a second panel where it shows his dream of him combating a dragon rider and a lion rider with his dagger. This shows that noble knights are willing to fight to the end even if their blades and shields are destroyed. With a knife, it can be used to win the hardest battles and collect spoils of wars.

Knives can also be seen as a dangerous weapon if you have it as a hand. During an excavation of 1985, there was a corpse of a man who had a missing hand but a dagger in its place (Frost). It was suspected that a knight lost his hand during battle through an amputation and used a dagger as a prosthetic hand. It was also suspected he lost his hand through capital punishment (Frost). However, it is known to be an intimidating weapon when you get into bar-fights or small-town skirmishes (Frost).

Knives come in varying sizes and shapes. They could either be double-edged or single-edged, curved or straight, short or long, and more (Dandridge 148). But it can be assumed that most daggers used for battle can be about the size of your forearm (Medieval).

Works Cited

Primary Source:

Dandridge, Pete, and Mark T. Wypyski. “Sword and Dagger Pommels Associated with the Crusades, Part II: A Technical Study.” Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 46, no. 1, 2011, pp. 145–152. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/668456.

Secondary Source:

Frost, Natasha. “This Medieval Skeleton Has a Knife for a Hand.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 17 Apr. 2018, www.history.com/news/knife-hand-skeleton-prosthetic-discovery-italy.

Queste del Saint Graal  (Post-Vulgate cycle), Mort Artu , fol.28v .. ca. 1380-1400.. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/AWSS35953_35953_31694265

“Medieval Poniard and Dagger.” All-Gauge Model Railroading Page, Milihistriot Quarterly, http://www.thortrains.com/getright/drillmedagger1.htm

The Scimitar is associated with the Saracens from Arabia Petraea (Scimitar). It is also commonly associated in the Holy Land as well (land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea in today’s geography). It originated from Arabia while it was in the Roman Kingdom and was popular during the 13th century (Staff). This weapon was commonly used to fight against the Crusaders and against the Crusader Sword. It was a common weapon to use on horseback due to how light it was and its distinct curve (Staff). It was highly effective against armored knights due to the distinct curve, the force generated while on horseback, and how much swifter the blows can be delivered compared to the Medieval Arming Sword (Staff).

http://medievalweaponinfo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Medieval-Scimitar-Sword.jp(g)

The length of the sword was typically 30 to 36 inches (with 3-4 inches being the hilt size and the rest being the blade size) (Scimitar). The Scimitar weighed between 3-4 pounds with a width of 2-3 inches. Its hilt is considered smaller than the Medieval Arming Sword (can be distinguished in the Scimitar picture and from the Medieval Arming Sword picture from the previous blog). This sword wasn’t ideal for stabbing enemies but was considered the gold standard for slash wounds. During the Second Crusade, the Scimitars play a drastic role in the Salahuddin army in the 12th century (Staff). It completely outclassed the Crusader Sword due to the Scimitar’s superior speed, ability to parry blows due to its curve, and effectiveness while on horseback. After the showing of the Scimitar’s lethalness, it was also used by the Mongols, Rajputs, and Sikhs (Staff).

Jean d’Alluye from the Abbey of La Clarte-Dieu based from France depicts the model of an ideal knight. With a long-sleeved and hooded mail shirt, mittens, coif, spurs, a Crusader Sword, and a shield, this was the outfit of a knight of the 12th-13th century (Nickel 123). Although this was the image of a knight, he depicts how a Scimitar from the Islamic world can cause damage to this knight of the 12th-13th century (Nickel 123). However, there aren’t a lot of Scimitars preserved as well as the Crusader Swords or the Medieval Arming Sword. This was most likely due to the hilt being smaller, making it easier to break during battle (Nickel 126).

Works Cited

Primary Source:

“Scimitar.” Life in the Middle Ages, Lords and Ladies, http://www.lordsandladies.org/scimitar.htm.

Secondary Source:

http://medievalweaponinfo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Medieval-Scimitar-Sword.jp(g)

Nickel, Helmut. “A Crusader’s Sword: Concerning the Effigy of Jean D’Alluye.” Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 26, 1991, pp. 123–128. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1512905.

Staff, Editor. “Scimitar.” Medieval Middle Ages, Medieval Middle Ages, 8 Feb. 2013, http://www.medievalmiddleages.com/weapons/scimitar.html.