Category Archives: Cohort II

Marcus Ulpius Traianus, the Roman Emperor known as Trajan was born in about 54 AD in Spain. He was the son of a Consul which made him royalty.  Due to his exceptional public and military reputation he was chosen to be the successor of Nerva who adopted him in approximately 98 AD.  Shortly after his adoption, Emperor Nerva died and Trajan became the Emperor.  Just three years later Rome would embark on the first of two wars with the Dacians (Germanic barbarians) who lived across the Danube in what is now known as Romania. The leader of the Dacians was by Decebalus.  Emperor Trajan’s lead the Romans to victory in both wars (Beckman, 1998).Trajan’s Column is a monument located Rome, Italy and was created to commemorate Rome’s victory in the Dacian Wars.  Emperor Trajan was the leader of the Roman Army and he is the subject of many of the etchings which depict the Roman army in their daily activities as well as when they were in battle with the Dacians (Trajan’s column, 2012).

This section of the column below to the left depicts Trajan standing on a bridge welcoming his soldiers on the left. Upon close examination of the section the construction of the bridge is apparent.  Also, notice how the soldiers are wearing their armor.  The soldiers are depicted standing lower that Trajan and his advisors.  Trajan arrives at a campsite and is conversing with the soldiers.  Here the soldiers are dressed more casually.  The construction of the walls which the Roman soldiers are famous for is clearly shown in the background (Rockwell, Trajan interacting with his soldiers, 1980-1990).

Scene 50-51 Trajan interacting with his soldiers. Used by permission. Copyright Peter Rockwell http://www.stoa.org/trajan/images/hi/4.1.h.jpg

Scene 428 Trajan making a sacrifice on the danube. Used with permission. Copyright Peter Rockwell. http://www.stoa.org/trajan/images/hi/4.79.h.jpg

In the section of the column to the right, the army is standing in front of a fort on a bridge. Trajan appears to be offering a sacrifice in their behalf. He is bare headed and in wearing what is known as military undress uniform. He appears to be pouring something on the alter.  The people standing around Trajan seem to be at ease and there is also a small girl known as a camulis standing by with a incense box.  There is at least one high ranking officer standing next to Trajan.   (Rockwell, Trajan sacrificing by the danube, 1980-1990).

Resources

Trajan’s column. (2012, March 2). Retrieved March 8, 2012, from Wikpedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan’s_Column

Beckman, M. (1998). Trajans Column. (M. G. George, Editor, G. Rockwell, Producer, & The MacMaster Trajan Project) Retrieved March 8, 2012, from http://www.stoa.org: http://www.stoa.org/trajan/introductory_essay.html

Richmond, I. (1935). Trajan’s army in trajan’s column. Papers of the British School at Rome, 13, 1-40. Retrieved March 8, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40310440

Rockwell, P. Trajan sacrificing by the danube. Retrieved March 8, 2012, from http://www.stoa.org/trajan/buildtrajanpage.cgi?205.0914+true

Rockwell, P. Trajan interacting with his soldiers. Retrieved March 8, 2012, from http://www.stoa.org/trajan/buildtrajanpage.cgi?4

August, 216 B.C: near the small township of Cannae, a mere two hundred fifty miles from Rome, Hannibal of Carthage and his army prepared for battle. They were faced off against the legions of Aemilius Paullus and Caius Terrentius Varro, the Consuls of Rome. Under normal circumstances, one consul and a couple of legions was enough to stir optimism in a Roman victory. “On the occasion in question, however, they were so alarmed and terrified that they decided to send not just four, but eight Roman legions into battle at once” (Polybius 213) as well as both of their consuls. These were also extended legions, each consisting of 5000 infantry and 300 cavalry instead of 4000 and 200 respectively (Lancel 104). Legionary command alternated every other day for Paullus and Varro, who disagreed on nearly everything. On August 2, 216 B.C., it was Varro’s turn to command the army. Just after sunrise, he led his troops out onto the battlefield, forming a continuous line facing south. Aemilius commanded the right wing of 2,400 Roman cavalry posted near the river Aufidus. Center force of 55,000 heavy infantry  and forward center position of 15,000 light infantry(McKnight 7) was commanded by the previous year’s consuls, Atilius and Servilius (Polybius219). Varro headed the Allied cavalry of 3,600 on the left wing. In total, the Roman army was a force of approximately 86,000 men.

Hannibal’s army of 50,000 was much smaller than that of the Romans. However, he also had cavalry superiority, which was perfect for the flat and treeless battlefield they would be fighting on. Hasdrubal was in charge of the Spanish and Gallic cavalry of 6,500 on the left wing near the river. Hannibal and his brother, Mago, commanded the center of 10,000 Libyans, 6000 Spaniards, and 1,250 Gauls/Celts as well as the 11,500 light infantry that took up the forward position. Right wing made of  3,500 Numidian cavalry was commanded by Hanno (McKnight). The fighting had begun: it was Hasdrubal’s Spanish/Gallic cavalry versus Paullus’ Roman cavalry near the river, the main bodies of infantry in the center, and Hanno’s Numidian cavalry versus Varro’s Roman Allied cavalry on the opposite side.

Varro’s plan was to smash through the Carthaginian center using sheer weight of numbers. To further this ideal, he reduced the gaps between the maniples in each line and made each maniple very deep (Goldsworthy 97) increasing its power but sacrificing its order and flexibility. Hannibal took his straight line of infantry and moved the center forward, making a crescent shaped line that protruded out toward the enemy (Polybius 218).

Outcome and movements of the Roman and Carthaginian armies

 Near the river Afidus, Hasdrubal’s cavalry engaged Paullus’ Roman cavalry. Varro hoped that the cramped space between the river and the flank of the river army would cancel out any advantage Hasdrubal may have had in making a mobile attack. However, the Gauls and Spaniards were used to fighting in close quarters (McKnight 11). Their ferocity decimated the Roman cavalry, whose survivors were chased along the riverbank and slaughtered. Paullus escaped and rejoined the main conflict in the center.

 The Roman line of infantry had become much thicker in the center, since Hannibal’s formation provoked the Romans to attack there first.  The thin crescent line of Gauls and Spaniards began to fall back under the pressure of the densely packed maniples. As they gave way and swiftly retreated, the Romans chased after them. Exploiting their supposed success, maniples from behind as well as large numbers from the sides were drawn into the struggle. The Roman infantry was now more like a frenzied crowd than an organized body of soldiers. (Goldsworthy147)

 Meanwhile, the Numidian Cavalry on Hannibal’s right wing attacked the Roman Allied Cavalry facing them. The Numidians harassed them from all sides, taking turns at throwing javelins and then running away. They did not inflict or sustain any major damage but at the same time distracted the Roman allies from aiding the infantry in the main conflict.

 Hasdrubal’s cavalry had regrouped and came over to assist the Numidians. The outnumbered Roman Allies panicked and fled. The remaining Allied horsemen were picked off by the pursuing Numidians, whose peculiar tactics became more dangerous once they had the enemy on the run (Polybius 220).

During this time, the Roman legions rushed right into Hannibal’s trap. In pursuit of the fleeing Gauls and Spaniards, the Romans had continued so far forward that they exposed both flanks to the heavy Libyan infantry. Having not yet fought, these eight to ten thousand troops were fresh and in good order (Goldsworthy 148). Startled by the energetic attack from the Libyans on either side, the Romans stopped dead in their tracks and turned to face their attackers. The Gauls and Spaniards returned, walling them in from three sides.  

With the Allied cavalry being taken care of by the Numidians, Hasdrubal’s horsemen joined the main conflict. Closing in and attacking from the back served to boost morale for Hannibal’s troops as well as demoralize and terrify the Romans. They were now surrounded on all sides, unable to escape because of their packed formations. Inner maniples may not have realized the danger until the men in front of them were cut down; the victorious Carthaginians annihilated the remaining Roman army rank by rank from the outside in.

Works Cited

Polybius. The Histories. Trans. Robin Waterfield. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print

Goldsworthy, Adrian. Cannae. London: Cassell & Co. 1988. Print.

McKnight, Sean. Holmes, Richard., ed The Hutchinson Atlas of Battle Plans. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1998. Print.

Holmes, Terence M. “Classical Blitzkrieg: The Untimely Modernity of Schlieffen’s Cannae Programme.” The Journal of Military History 67.3 (2003) 745-771. Web. 15 Feb. 2012

Lancel, Serge. Hannibal. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

Alexander’s army of 65,000 Macedonians was also accompanied by 1300 baggage animals and 6100 cavalry horses, according to Engel. The estimation of this exact number of animals would fluctuate due to the provisions  being carried, availability of animals, as well as those lost to sickness and exhaustion. Horses, mules, and camels were the main types of pack animals included in Alexander’s baggage train.

 In addition to food and provisions, some pack animals were used for carrying non-comestible supplies like tents, hammocks, firewood, medical supplies, and treasure. A few horse or mule-drawn carts were designated to carry siege weapons, act as the army ambulance, or sometimes carry women and children. These were limited due to their tendency to break down and their cumbersome nature over rough terrain. Carts were additionally restricted because of the inefficient throat and girth harness, which was placed directly over the animal’s windpipe: the harder the horse pulled, the more it choked him. (Engel)

Horses and mules are basically the same as far as rations and carrying capacity; both  require an average of ten pounds of grain rations, ten pounds of grazing fodder, and eight gallons of water per day (Engel 18). A horse or mule can carry two-hundred pounds and each animal is capable of pulling a load directionally proportional to its body weight. The animals can bear the load, whether from pack or rider, for about five to seven consecutive days. After that, they will need to rest and have time – at least sixteen hours a day – for grazing to stay in good condition (Sidnell 85). Being a military campaign, conditions were not particularly ideal for the animal. Many horses died from exhaustion and/or malnutrition because the speed of the march prevented them from grazing, even though there was plenty of grain supply (Engel 81). Under these types of harsh conditions, common equine health issues may have also included wounds, poor body condition, respiratory diseases, parasites, dental problems, and lameness (Burn et al.)

Unfortunately, sick, injured, or exhausted horses were an encumbrance to the army and had to be left behind. Worse things could happen to a pack animal, namely being engulfed by sand, washed away by monsoons, or eaten by hungry soldiers (Arrian 6.24.4-6, 6.25.1-3, 6.25.4-5). Alexander turned a blind eye on this sort of ravenous activity, especially during desperate times. It made sense for the soldiers to eat the animals – after all, the average camel carcass provides 900-1400 pounds of meat (Wikipedia Contributors).

The introduction of the camel may have occurred after the Battle of Issus where Darius’ baggage train, which included camels, was captured by Alexander’s army. The benefits of using camels as pack animals in arid climates is obvious; camels are genetically developed to withstand temperatures and conditions that would kill most other animals (Wikipedia). A camel can also carry at least one hundred pounds more than the typical horse or mule (Engel 14). The largest disadvantage of using camels is that they require more water – ten gallons per day on average (Engel 18).

A mosaic depiction of Alexander and his horse Bucephalus at the Battle of Issus.

Besides camels, Alexander’s entourage even included elephants at times, some of which were captured from enemy baggage trains or rounded up from abandoned settlements (Arrian 3.15.4,4.30.7). When Alexander arrived at the Indus River, he was presented with thirty elephants in addition to the two ships, two hundred silver talents, three thousand sacrificial oxen, and ten thousand head of cattle (Arrian 5.3.5). Alexander’s horse, Bucephalus, was bred from famous Thessalian strain and cost thirteen talents – enough money for a Greek laborer to live on for a hundred years (Sidnell 85).

Among the 6100 cavalry horses, there are three distinct breeds that may have used. The first is an extinct breed: the Nisaean. Sixteen hands high and very muscular, the sacred Median horses were prized for their unusual size and strength. They were the most valuable horses in the ancient world and regarded as the most beautiful horses alive (Wikipedia Contributors). Modern descendants of the Nisaean include the Iberian breeds such as the Andalusian and Lusitano. The second breed used by the Macedonians, the Ferghana, is also extinct. Bred in what is now modern Uzbekistan and measuring at 15.3 hands, this ‘celestial’ breed used by Alexander was also greatly sought after by the Chinese to establish an Imperial bloodline. Emperor Wu Ti’s army suffered fifty thousand casualties when he forcibly seized three thousand stallions from Ferghana (Sidnell). The third breed, the Akhal-Teke, is the only one still in existence. A bit smaller than the Ferghana and more finely built than the Nisaean, these horses have prodigious stamina and beautiful, shining coats that look almost metallic in sunlight; the capital of the country from which the Akhal-Teke originate was even called ‘Bactra of the Golden Horses’ (Sidnell 85).

A modern day photograph of an Akhal-Teke. Tekes come not only in gold, but also in many other colors including bronze, copper, and obsidian.

A dark brown Andalusian horse. Andalusians and other Spanish breeds are believed to be descended from the now extinct Nisaean horse - the most beautiful and valuable breed in antiquity.

One of Emperor Taizong's horses from Zhaoling - likely to have Ferghana bloodlines. Tang Dynasty (c.650). University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

Works Cited

Arrianus, Lucius Flavius. The Landmark Arrian: the Campaigns of Alexander. New York: Pantheon Books, 2010. Print

 Sidnell, Philip. Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare. New York: Continuum Books US, 2006. Print

 Engels, Donald W. Alexander the Great and Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Print.

 Burn, Charlotte C., Tania L. Dennison, and Helen R. Whay. “Relationships between behaviour and health in working horses, donkeys, and mules in developing countries.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 126, 3 (2010): 109-118. Web. 8 Feb. 2012

Wikipedia contributors. “Nisean horse.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 12 Dec. 2011. Web. 9 Feb. 2012.

Wikipedia contributors. “Camel.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Web. 8 Feb. 2012.

Amy: Leader-red

Jeff: Scribe/Historian/Aftermath-pink

Boston: Strategist-orange

Liz: Scout/Intelligence-yellow

Hailey: Military Tech/ Weapons Developer/ Armoury-green

Wally: Doctor/Healer/Priest-blue

Caden: Camp Coordinator/ Fills in as  Priest/Healer/Priest-White

Sorry if I got any names wrong or spelled them wrong. I had my mom read them to me over the phone and my handwriting was terrible. Sorry again

-FreyjaBellona aka Amy